Inclusive Digital Learning: Teacher and Student Perspectives in East African TVET Contexts

Introduction

Digital inclusion is defined as ensuring access to devices and connectivity, developing digital literacy, and supporting meaningful and effective use of digital tools (OECD, 2019; Van Dijk, 2020). Equity in digital learning emphasizes that all learners regardless of socio-economic background, disability, or location get the resources, accessible tools, and pedagogical support to participate fully in digital education (Gorski, 2009). Inclusive digital learning explores how digital technologies can be harnessed to create equitable and accessible educational experiences for all learners, including those with diverse abilities and backgrounds. This field examines the intersection of digital tools, inclusive pedagogies, and learner diversity, aiming to bridge educational gaps and promote social justice in learning environments (Bishop et al, 2022; Navas-Bonilla et al., 2025). Inclusive digital learning is a dynamic and evolving field that integrates technology with inclusive educational practices (Sparks, 2019). This type of inclusive digital learning is crucial for East Africa’s development, as it ensures equitable access to the digital economy and addresses disparities in digital skills. The region faces challenges such as inadequate infrastructure, limited access to digital tools, and a shortage of skilled teachers, all of which hinder the integration of digital technologies and inclusion in education.

Although Tanzania has made significant improvement in integrating ICT into education (Oreku, 2022), the fact that Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) teachers lack sufficient digital literacy skills limits their ability to design and deliver inclusive digital learning experiences (Azmi et al. 2024; MoeST 2025). This gap not only affects the effective use of technology in classrooms but also risks widening educational inequalities, as learners with diverse needs and backgrounds may not be adequately catered to (Matandala & Francis, 2024). According to Nalaila and Elia (2024), who conducted a study on students’ digital literacy skills for learning in Tanzania’s public universities, the students’ access to digital devices and their digital literacy skills have a direct impact on their learning processes. Without a clear understanding of how the teachers’ and students’ digital literacy influences inclusive learning practices, efforts to expand digital learning in Tanzania remain uneven and exclusionary (Msambwa and Daniel, 2024). These earlier studies in Tanzania acknowledge ICT expansion but do not sufficiently explore the combined influence of both teachers’ and students’ digital literacy on inclusive digital learning practices, particularly within the TVET context. This creates a need for further study.

Research Objectives and Questions

The objective of this study is to examine how the teachers’ and students’ access to technology, digital literacy, inclusive practices and institutional support influence the implementation of inclusive digital learning in Tanzania’s TVET institutions. In addition, this study explores the challenges associated with inclusive digital learning. This leads to the following research questions:

1. How does access to technology, digital literacy levels, and institutional support influence TVET teachers’ and students’ ability to use digital tools for inclusive teaching and learning?
2. What are the challenges faced by TVET teachers and students in inclusive/digital learning?

Through examining these questions, this study aims to provide further evidence to guide policymakers, TVET institutions, teachers and students in developing digital inclusion strategies that enhance equitable learning, support national skills development, and advance sustainable development goals. This study suggests that by investing in inclusive digital learning, East African countries can equip their populations with essential digital competencies, fostering economic growth and competitiveness in the global market. Previous research indicates that digital transformation in education can lead to improved learning outcomes and increased employability, particularly in sectors like agriculture, health, and finance, which are vital to the region’s economy (Mukul & Buyukozkan, 2023). Moreover, inclusive digital education supports social development by bridging the digital divide and promoting lifelong learning opportunities for all, regardless of socio-economic status (Gbadebo, 2024). This present study also seeks to advance the UN sustainable development goals (SDGs) by researching and developing digital inclusion in education, innovation and inclusive learning.

Literature review

Digital technology has become integral to enhancing teaching and learning in TVET contexts. Studies indicate that access to high-quality digital learning resources is crucial for inclusive education, particularly for learners from disadvantaged backgrounds (Musa et al., 2024; Wüthrich, 2025). The adoption of instructional technologies in East Africa shows promising improvements in learner engagement, although disparities in access persist due to socioeconomic and infrastructural constraints (Faustino et al., 2024; Ochieng & Ngware, 2023).

Teacher competence is a critical factor for successful integration of technology. Previous research has shown that digital literacy, pedagogical skills, and continuous professional development have a significant influence on the effectiveness of e-learning interventions (Marín & Castaneda, 2022; Theodorio, 2024; Mutebi et al., 2023). Gaps in digital skills, particularly among teachers who have been less exposed to digital tools, limit the potential of ICT in vocational instructions (Matete et al., 2023; Nyakito et al., 2021). Similarly, the digital literacy of students varies widely, often reflecting disparities between rural and urban contexts and household income differences (Ndibalema, 2025; Mwishwa & Imani, 2025).

Inclusive education within digital learning remains a persistent challenge. Teachers and institutions often lack access to assistive technologies, training in inclusive pedagogy, and adapted curricula, which constrains the participation of marginalized learners (Nsabayezu et al., 2022; Asitah et al., 2024; O’Dowd, 2025). Furthermore, socioeconomic inequities force further exclusion, emphasizing the need for subsidized digital access, blended learning strategies, and context-specific support (Faturoti, 2022; Garcia, 2022; Fabregas et al., 2025).

The COVID-19 pandemic accelerated e-learning adoption, revealing both opportunities and barriers. Remote learning promoted innovation, gamification, and exposure to advanced digital tools such as virtual reality (Dahalan et al., 2024; Kalluri et al., 2025; Panda, 2025), but also highlighted challenges including unreliable connectivity, high costs, and reduced interaction (Ndzinisa & Dlamini, 2022; Van Der Merwe et al., 2023). Effective integration of digital tools in TVET therefore requires investments in infrastructure, teacher training, inclusive learning strategies, and tailored curricula to ensure equitable learning outcomes (Manoharan et al., 2024; Zickafoose et al., 2024; Landa et al., 2023).

In terms of a theoretical framework, this study is guided by previous work on digital inclusion and equity. Digital inclusion encompasses access to technology, digital literacy, and the ability to use digital tools effectively (Helsper, 2012; Van Dijk, 2020). Equity in digital learning, on the other hand, ensures that all students, regardless of socio-economic status, disability, or geographic location, have the resources and support needed to succeed in a digital learning environment (Gorski, 2009).

Methodology and data analysis

In collecting the data, this study employed a qualitative case study research approach to understand how access to technology, digital literacy levels, and institutional support influence TVET teachers’ and students’ ability to use digital tools for inclusive teaching and learning, and to examine the challenges faced by TVET teachers and students in inclusive digital learning. In this approach, a researcher studies subjects in their natural setting, seeking to interpret the phenomena based on the meanings that people attach to the examined matters. Data was collected in four schools during a field trip to Dar es Salaam and Dodoma in Tanzania between September and October 2025. Dar es Salaam was selected as a destination due to its status as the business hub of the country, and Dodoma was selected because it is the capital of the country. The schools involved were VETA ICT Dar es Salaam, VETA Dodoma, Don Bosco Dodoma, and Mkokotoni Vocational College in Zanzibar. In the last school, the interviews were conducted virtually. Data was collected using semi-structured interviews and focus group discussions with a total of 20 teachers and 40 students from the Tanzanian TVET education schools. The interview questions were structured so that they would fall under four topics: access, skills, effective use and equity. During the focus group discussions, questions were raised by the researcher, and the members of the group participated by responding. At these discussions, the role of the researcher was to facilitate the discussion and make sure that everyone had a chance to contribute to the talk. To ensure inclusivity, Swahili language was used whenever necessary, and the collected data were transcribed and later translated into English.

A thematic qualitative analysis along the lines of work by Kiger and Varpio (2020) was employed to analyse the collected data. This approach allows a researcher to explore and interpret the meaning, patterns, and themes in qualitative data. The analysis followed the six stages of thematic analysis proposed by Braun and Clarke (2006). The initial stage involved familiarization with the data through transcription, careful reading, and the noting of preliminary ideas. This enabled a thorough understanding of the material and helped to generate initial insights. As familiarity increased with the collected data, emerging patterns and relationships informed the early stages of addressing the research questions.

The analysis revealed interconnected categories of issues that together explain how digital inclusion is experienced by teachers and students in vocational training contexts. Key categories related to access included the availability and adequacy of digital devices, the reliability and affordability of internet connectivity, institutional ICT infrastructure, and reliance on personal devices, all of which highlight the persistent structural inequalities in digital access. Closer inspection of the collected responses also brought up further concerns of uneven digital skills and competence, including differences between basic and advanced skills, smartphone versus computer literacy, teacher confidence in using digital tools, and generational as well as rural versus urban disparities. Inclusion-related responses focused on learner diversity, particularly the experiences of students with disabilities and those from socio-economically disadvantaged backgrounds, compounded by language barriers, limited assistive technologies, and insufficient institutional support for differentiated learning. In response to these challenges, teachers and students explained having adopted adaptive strategies such as inclusive teaching practices, peer support, guided learning, and blended approaches. However, they also found that these efforts were often constrained by structural and resource limitations, underscoring the gap between inclusive intentions and the institutional conditions required for equitable digital learning.

Following Braun and Clarke’s (2006) six-phase approach to thematic analysis, the interview data were systematically analyzed to identify patterned meanings across the dataset. After familiarization with the data, initial codes were generated and iteratively reviewed, leading to the clustering of related codes into broader categories. Through the processes of reviewing and refining these categories, four overarching themes were identified: unequal access to digital infrastructure, uneven digital skills and competence, inclusion and equity in digital learning, and coping strategies and their structural limitations. These themes were defined and named through continuous engagement with the data and they were further informed by concepts from research on digital inclusion and equity, providing a structured foundation for the findings and analysis that follow. Finally, the analysis looked for connections between different themes and examined how they relate to the research questions.

Findings from analysing the responses

As a result of this analysis, this study found that teachers across the four vocational training centers reported regular use of digital tools such as phones, laptops, and projectors. However, they also reported that access to technology remains inconsistent and often inadequate as internet connectivity varies by building and is frequently unreliable, limiting lesson preparation and the use of online materials. These conditions reflect the core dimensions of digital inclusion, particularly unequal access to technology and connectivity (Helsper, 2012; Van Dijk, 2020).

Most teachers possess basic digital skills and value technology for increasing student engagement, but they also felt that their limited experience in using these tools, equipment shortages, and a lack of continuous training constrain effective use. This uneven ability to apply digital tools highlights gaps in digital literacy – the fact that skills development has not kept pace with technological demands (Van Dijk, 2020). The students face similar barriers: not all have personal devices, digital literacy varies widely, and learners with hearing, mobility, or visual impairments require additional support, adapted materials, and flexible assessment. From an equity perspective, these challenges demonstrate how disability and socio-economic status intersect to limit fair participation in digital learning (Gorski, 2009).

Teachers reported that they sought to address these challenges through inclusive practices such as mixed-ability grouping, providing printed and digital notes, allowing extra time for practical exams, and using visual materials to support understanding. However, they emphasized the need for improved ICT infrastructure, accessible devices, and assistive technologies. The lack of these resources reveals a gap between the inclusive intentions and the institutional conditions required to achieve digital equity. Teachers also identified ongoing professional development as essential, particularly in inclusive pedagogy and special needs identification. Despite these constraints, they noted that using technology can increase motivation, participation, and opportunities for authentic, hands-on learning.

Students across all schools reported very limited access to digital technology. Most relied primarily on smartphones and lacked computers or affordable data bundles, making digital learning costly and difficult. This reliance on mobile-only access reflects structural inequalities that digital inclusion theory identifies as central points to address in order to achieve actual digital inclusion (Helsper, 2012). The digital literacy of the students who were interviewed for this study was generally on a basic level, and it was stronger on phones than on computers. This became apparent as they reported that they could manage messaging and social media, but many noted that they struggled with computer-based tasks, simulations, and applications requiring advanced skills. This pattern illustrates the “second-level digital divide” where skill and usage gaps persist despite basic access (Van Dijk, 2020).

Although digital learning offers opportunities for communication, information access, and exposure to tools such as programming and simulations, these benefits are constrained by slow internet, high data costs, limited devices in terms of numbers and capacity, and a lack of inclusive training. As a result, learners from disadvantaged backgrounds experience reduced opportunities, reinforcing rather than reducing inequities (Gorski, 2009). Students also reported limited interaction and support in online learning, alongside economic pressures, disabilities, weak practical environments, and competing responsibilities. They emphasized the need for stronger digital-literacy training, affordable technology, and institutional support to ensure inclusive digital learning.

Across the four institutions, teachers and students also reported facing substantial barriers related to access, infrastructure, and digital competence, corresponding directly with the key dimensions of digital inclusion: access, skills, and effective use (Helsper, 2012). Teachers often rely on personal smartphones or laptops due to limited or outdated institutional devices, and internet connectivity remains slow and inconsistent, sometimes requiring dependence on mobile data. These infrastructural limitations restrict equitable participation and undermine the principle that all learners should have comparable learning conditions (Memon & Memon, 2025).

Both teachers and students generally possess only basic digital skills. While smartphone use is common, computer literacy is uneven, particularly among older teachers and students from rural backgrounds. This uneven distribution of skills reinforces digital inequality, supporting Van Dijk’s (2020) argument that digital divides are shaped as much by competence as by access. Consequently, teaching practices combine limited digital presentations with hands-on activities, downloads, and videos. Although digital tools enhance motivation and engagement, their impact is constrained by weak infrastructure and uneven digital readiness.

In addition to this, inclusivity remains a significant challenge. Teachers reported working with learners who have diverse needs, including disabilities and learning difficulties, but lacking assistive technologies, training, and institutional support systems. From an equity standpoint, this limits the learners’ access to differentiated resources and fair participation (Gorski, 2009). The teachers also reported that language barriers in ICT curricula limited their confidence, and gaps in professional training further hindered inclusive practices. Overall, the teachers agreed that continuous professional development, improved ICT infrastructure, and dedicated support for inclusive strategies are essential to achieving equity in digital learning.

Finally, many of the respondents noted how environmental and economic factors such as high data costs, limited exposure to digital tools, and curriculum misalignment compound these challenges and highlight the need for systemic investment. The students’ participation in online learning is shaped strongly by access and digital competence: most rely on smartphones, lack computers and affordable internet, and struggle with advanced digital tasks. This reinforces the link between socio-economic status and digital readiness (Helsper, 2012; Gorski, 2009). Limited training in formal digital skills and the often reduced interactivity of learning on online platforms further heighten exclusion for marginalized learners, meaning that digital learning risks widening opportunity gaps when adequate support is absent.

To address these barriers, teachers and students employ adaptive strategies such as gradual and sequential learning, peer support earning, peer support, and extensive instructional guidance. While these efforts promote inclusion, they cannot fully compensate for persistent infrastructural and socioeconomic constraints. As a result, classroom-based instruction remains more effective for deep understanding, particularly in technical subjects that require hands-on practice. Taken together, these findings indicate that achieving digital inclusion and equity in this context requires a blended-learning model supported by coordinated investment in access, skills development, and inclusive design, rather than isolated technological interventions.

Discussion

This study demonstrates that while digital tools offer significant opportunities for inclusive learning in Tanzania’s TVET institutions, access to technology, digital literacy, and institutional support remain major barriers. Limited number of devices and their capacity, unreliable internet, and uneven computer skills constrain both teaching and learning, with teachers often relying on personal smartphones and students often lacking computers. These findings align with prior research on infrastructure and access disparities in East Africa (Faustino et al., 2024; Nalaila & Elia, 2024). Also teacher competence emerged as a critical factor in this study. Teachers with limited experience or training reported struggling to integrate digital tools effectively, and it became apparent that the students’ digital literacy varies widely, particularly among rural and low-income learners, echoing earlier studies on socioeconomic disparities (Ndibalema, 2025; Marín & Castaneda, 2022). Inclusive education practices face additional challenges also because teachers lack access to assistive technologies, training, and aligned curricula, and peer support can only partially mitigate exclusion (Nsabayezu et al., 2022).

Overall, these results underscore the fact that technology alone cannot ensure inclusion. Effective digital learning requires holistic strategies, such as blended learning, structured teacher training, accessible infrastructure, and policy support. These types of approaches advance digital equity, promote engagement, and enhance creativity and employability, supporting regional development goals (Mukul & Büyüközkan, 2023; Gbadebo, 2024). To this end, future research should examine, for example, the long-term impact of professional development, infrastructure improvements, and inclusive strategies on student outcomes. In summary, addressing technological, pedagogical, and socioeconomic barriers through coordinated institutional and policy interventions is essential to achieve equitable and effective digital learning in Tanzania’s TVET sector.

Conclusion and Recommendations

As also the results of this study indicate, digital technology has the potential to enhance learning and engagement in TVET contexts, but structural, pedagogical, and socio-economic challenges limit its effectiveness. Teachers are motivated and recognize the benefits of ICT solutions, but they face constraints in terms of infrastructure, digital competence, and inclusion strategies. At the same time, while students benefit from digital tools, they also require support to bridge access and literacy gaps. Because of this, strategic interventions are necessary to achieve equitable and effective digital learning. To strengthen inclusive digital learning, classrooms should be equipped with a sufficient number of devices, projectors, and a reliable internet, while teachers should receive ongoing training in digital skills and inclusive pedagogy. To supplement this, students should have access to pre-course digital literacy programs and peer-support systems, alongside assistive technologies, text-to-speech software, and Swahili language-compatible ICT resources. The teaching curricula should also adopt hands-on digital activities, blended learning, and differentiated instruction to accommodate learners from marginalized groups. Such policy measures should include subsidizing data bundles, expand information technology community centres, and support low-income students to promote equitable access and reduce learning disparities. In conclusion, inclusive digital learning in TVET is achievable only through coordinated technological, pedagogical, and socioeconomic interventions that collectively translate digital promise into meaningful educational opportunity.

Authors