Additive manufacturing (AM) has rapidly evolved from a prototyping method into a pillar of advanced production in aerospace, energy, and healthcare. At the same time, its growing dependence on high-purity metal powders, such as titanium, nickel, and specialty steels, poses a paradox: a technology celebrated for minimizing waste and enabling agile and local manufacturing still relies on energy-intensive, centralized, and fragile supply chains(Bourell et al., 2020; Demiralay et al., 2024). As global logistics face volatility and the cost and availability of critical alloys fluctuate, the need for local, sustainable, and resilient powder supply has never been greater.
An overlooked link in the circular economy
Most discussions around AM sustainability have focused on optimizing part design or reducing print time. Far less attention has been paid to what happens to the unused (or unprinted) powder left outside of the printed geometry, which degrades while being reused and finally falls outside the process window. These end-of-life (EoL) powders are often discarded or downcycled, although also they contain valuable metallic resources (Powell, 2020; Tebaldo et al., 2023). Meanwhile, virgin powder production relies largely on gas or plasma atomization – processes that are costly, energy-hungry, and carbon-intensive (Bourell et al., 2020; Benedetti et al., 2024).
This mismatch between waste generation and virgin material dependency highlights a missed opportunity. If these materials were recovered, reconditioned, or repurposed, they could form the backbone of a localized, circular AM ecosystem, decoupled from global supply risks (Cacace et al., 2020; Zhao et al., 2024).
From single-use powders to multi-life materials
Traditionally, recycling in powder-based AM has meant simply sieving the used powder and blending it with fresh feedstock. While this approach is practical, it only postpones the inevitable: every powder has a limited lifecycle because oxidation, morphology changes, and contamination gradually degrade its properties (Lanzutti & Marin, 2024; Li et al., 2024). However, emerging research shows that the life of these materials can be extended through reconditioning techniques, such as mechanical, thermal, or chemical processes that restore sphericity and flowability, and even the chemical composition of the material (Boulos, 2004; Vert et al., 2016; Sehhat et al., 2022; Fang et al., 2023).
Beyond reconditioning, new strategies for recycling envision cross-process reuse where powders are circulated between different AM technologies according to their quality requirements (Powell, 2020; Tebaldo et al., 2023; Bidare et al., 2024). For example, a powder that no longer meets the tight physical and chemical standards of Laser Powder Bed Fusion (LPBF), which targets components with higher resolution, purity and robustness in critical high-tech industries, could still perform well in Binder Jetting (BJT), where morphology and oxygen content are less critical and the product is meant for less demanding applications. While this approach of circulating powders between different AM uses is rarely implemented, it could multiply the effective lifetime of each kilogram of powder, reducing waste and cutting procurement costs.
Recycling through transformation
So far, introduced recycling methods involved reusing and reconditioning in the form of particles to find their way back to the same or another powder-based printing process. Another promising frontier of recycling AM powder is repurposing which converts EoL powders into alternative feedstocks, wires for Directed Energy Deposition (DED), or metal-filled polymers for Fused Deposition Modelling (FDM) (Singh et al., 2016; Khazdozian et al., 2018; Pan et al., 2018; Chawla et al., 2022; Zhao et al., 2024). Such cross-material innovation not only valorises metallic waste but also helps to reduce polymer waste by combining these two waste streams into new hybrid composites. Similarly, resourcing strategies that re-atomize scrap-built parts or waste into new powders are now proving technically viable, with studies showing reduced carbon footprints and mechanical properties comparable to virgin powder (Mohandas et al., 2023; Benedetti et al., 2024; Judd et al., 2024).
Untapped research opportunities and visions for local resilience
A variety of methods, ranging from reconditioning and repurposing to resourcing, have already been investigated for metallic powder recycling, and many of these approaches show strong potential for industrial-scale implementation. However, numerous other viable techniques exist that remain largely unexplored within the context of additive manufacturing. Taking the next step requires expanding the scope of inquiry: the sustainability of AM should not be viewed solely as recycling within a single process, but rather as creating interconnected circulation networks that link multiple materials, processes, and industries.
In addition to this, local recycling and resourcing of powders can significantly reduce reliance on international supply chains and buffer against raw material shortages. Moreover, integrating recycling technologies such as mechanical fragmentation, plasma reconditioning, or chemical deoxidation into regional manufacturing hubs could transform how feedstock is sourced. This means moving from centralized production to distributed material ecosystems (Cacace et al., 2020; Moghimian et al., 2021).
Such transformation requires interdisciplinary cooperation among a broad range of stakeholders, including materials scientists, process engineers, and technology providers, original equipment manufacturers and policymakers. Establishing standards for recycled powder quality, traceability, and certification will be crucial for industrial adoption, especially in aerospace and medical sectors where safety-critical materials are involved.
Why this matters now and in future
The urgency to develop these approaches to recycling lies not only in sustainability, but in strategic autonomy. Europe and other advanced manufacturing regions are increasingly aware that control over raw material flows is a matter of industrial sovereignty. AM offers a decentralized production method, but we should now also aim to decentralise its material supply. Metal powder recycling represents both a practical and a symbolic step toward that goal, aligning economic competitiveness, environmental stewardship, and technological independence.
The next decade will determine whether AM matures into a truly sustainable production platform or remains an energy-intensive niche. To achieve the former, we must rethink the powder lifecycle – not as a linear path from atomization to waste, but as a loop of resourcing, reconditioning, and repurposing. This requires investment in both technology and mindset: developing efficient, low-energy treatments for powder rejuvenation, designing adaptable multi-process workflows, and establishing local recycling nodes connected through smart logistics.
If implemented widely, such systems could turn today’s AM and other related industrial waste into tomorrow’s feedstock, closing the loop for metals while strengthening global resilience. The question is no longer whether we can recycle AM powder effectively, but whether we are ready to reorganize our industrial practices to make them the norm.
References
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Authors
About the project
The text was written as part of the KOHU project-Kohti toimivaa kiertotaloutta ja huoltovarmuutta (“Towards a functioning circular economy and security of supply”), funded by Hämeen Liitto regional council of Häme and co-funded by the European Union.
